The Proton is a positively charged baryonic nucleon, which is a bound state of quarks and gluons.

The Proton, along with its electrically neutral analog, the Neutron, and a fundamental unit of negative charge called the Electron, are the fundamental building blocks of all of the higher Elements, which are bound together into nuclei by virtual particles called mesons (gluons), and are synthesized within Stars.

The Proton is a fundamental quantized unit of positive electric charge, governed by Coulomb repulsion and the Pauli exclusion principle, and may be either freely propagating, or bound with negatively charged Electrons, as in Hydrogen and the Ions, etc. With a spin of 1/2, it is a fermion.

The general motion and bonding behavior of the Protons are responsible for, and subject to, the fundamental force of Electromagnetism, which is mediated by a gauge boson called the Photon. The individual electric and magnetic components of the Electromagnetic Fields generated by the existence and movement of these Electronic Quanta, are further conjugated by a set of equations called Maxwell's Equations, the full ramifications of which, are referred to as Classical Electrodynamics. The Quantum Theory of the Proton is usually referred to as Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), and internally, at much higher Energy scales, as Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD).

In the grander scheme of High Energy Physics, the Proton is also considered to be a baryon. The Proton also has half integral internal spin, which is responsible for nuclear magnetism, as such, it is a fermion.

The entire macroscopic ensemble of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons is, in general, electrically neutral, and is subject to the techniques of Statistical Mechanics, the Laws of Thermodynamics, and, of course, Classical Mechanics and Quantum Mechanics, the combination of which, is known as Condensed Matter Physics. The subject Matter of this Website, will primarily concern itself only with stable isotopic states of the various Elements, in the Low Energy (DC to UV Light) regime, typical of the Environment on the surface of the Planet Earth.

Since the Proton is electrically charged, it is the number of Protons within the nucleus of an atom, that determines its Chemistry, and therefore the Electromagnetic, Mechanical and Thermal properties of that particular Element. The Neutron is electrically neutral, thus, it is the number of Neutrons within the nucleus of an atom, that determines both its isotope number and atomic mass. Only stable Elements and isotopes at or below the atomic mass of Bismuth are considered on this Website.

A single Proton bound with a single Electron, by a gauge boson called the Photon, is the Element Hydrogen. A pair of Hydrogen atoms bound by virtual Photons, is called Molecular Hydrogen. A single Proton bound with a single Neutron is called a Deuteron. The occasional Hydrogen atom with an additional Neutron within its nucleus is called Deuterium.

To learn more about this World, I suggest that Quantum Mechanics is a really great place to start.

Humans breathe in Oxygen, and react it with Sugars and Carbohydrates, to produce Energy Conversion and Carbon Dioxide, in the process of respiration, and Plants absorb the Carbon Dioxide, along with Optical Photons, producing Oxygen, Carbohydrates and Sugars, in the (obviously oversimplified) process of transpiration, which obviously involves Water, Electrons and Optical Photons (Light).

Oxygen is also consumed, and Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapor and Heat are also produced, by Hydrocarbon Combustion, along with many other noxious and poisonous exhaust gas products and toxic waste.

Carbon Dioxide produced in this manner is eventually absorbed by the Oceans, and precipitated out in the form of sedimentary Calcium Carbonate (Limestone) plateaus, such as in the Bahamas. However, Humanity is currently pumping more Carbon Dioxide into the Atmosphere, than the Oceans can absorb, via inefficient methods of Hydrocarbon Combustion for Energy Production, thus, we are creating Global Warming and Global Sea Level Rise through Greenhouse Effects, in addition to defoliating and badly polluting the Planet Earth, and slowly, but surely, exterminating all of the Lifeforms that inhabit it. You can't expect me to stand by and witness one of the greatest mass extinctions of modern times, and say Nothing, can you?

Hydrocarbons and Hydrocarbon Combustion, are widely exploited by total idiots, and the inevitable results are Environmental Pollution, Ecological Degradation, Global Warming, Global Sea Level Rise, and the inevitable use of herbicides, pesticides, explosives, landmines, bullets, bombs, and the inevitable resulting War, Death and Extinction.

The use of these Hydrocarbons, in the form of Hydrocarbon Fossil Fuel Deposits, as a primary fuel source in infernal combustion engines, is also the primary antagonist to Biological Systems here on the Planet Earth, and their continued use as our primary Energy Conversion Source, is the most important Unsolved Problem now facing Civilization, Humanity and Life on Earth.

On the other hand, Hydrogen is also an ideal Chemical Fuel, Oxidizing directly into Water with no harmful emissions, and then Electrolyzing, (or alternatively, Photolyzing) directly back into Hydrogen and Oxygen, which also obviously involves Water, Electrons and Optical Photons (Light).

Water is an Atmospheric constituent, and a universal Solvent, occuring as Water Vapor in Air, Rainwater on the Land, and Seawater in the Oceans. Pure Water may be produced from these sources by Reverse Osmosis, Distillation (evaporation and condensation) or Electrocatalysis.

The development of Solar, Wind and Water derived Hydrogen, as our primary Energy Conversion Source here on the Planet Earth, as an eventual replacement for fossil derived Hydrocarbon Fuels, is now considered to be the most challenging Scientific and Technical problem confronting Humanity.

This Website is my offering of some Solutions to this extremely difficult and challenging Problem.

It has recently been deduced, that self doped, Octahedrally coordinated, Bismuth (I) Iodide complexes would be metallic, and thus possibly superconducting, demonstrating the Electronic Bose-Einstein Condensation of Bipolarons, i.e. - Bipolaronic Superconductivity.

The calculated low lying Electronic states of the Bismuth (I) Iodide molecule, compared with the Optical and Near Ultraviolet Spectroscopy of the Bismuth (I) Iodide molecule, reveals that there are indeed two bound singlet excited states, at 2.9 eV and 3.1 eV, the 0⁺(III) and 0⁺(IV) states, respectively, which actually do span the enthalpy of dissociation of Water, at 2.97 eV, and even more remarkably, the equilibrium bond lengths of these two states are 2.9 Å and 3.1 Å, respectively. This opens up the possibility of Phonon driven transitions between these two Electronic states, to mediate, and then ultimately stabilize, the condensed and superconducting Bismuth (I) Iodide state.

Table 5. The computed Spectroscopic properties of BiI (the excitation energy, T_e, the equilibrium bond length, r_e, and the vibrational frequency, w_e) together with corresponding experimental data.

Nitrogen sits at the opposite extreme of the Group V column. Whereas Bismuth is clearly a metal, Nitrogen is clearly an insulator, and also forms a unique Hydride, Ammonia, NH₃. Theoretical relationships have been found between metal Ammonia solutions and Bismuth (I) Iodide solutions, and a Boson - Fermion Model of the Metal - Insulator Transition has since been developed.

Alkali metals also have the unique property of being soluble in Ammonia solutions, which display interesting and dramatic Metal - Insulator Transitions, which offer many, but as yet undeveloped, technological applications, including High Temperature Superconductivity. While alkali metals themselves are not superconducting, expanded and intercalated alkali metals very often do display superconducting properties.

Oxygenated alkali metal Ammonia solutions, and Oxygen and Iodine doped Hydrocarbon polymers are also known to be highly unusual High Current conductors.

Alkali Halide salts also have the unusual property of forming Optically Active Color Centers (f-centers, defects states, etc.), when doped with excess ions or defects.